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Job Report Chefs, Cooks, and Other Kitchen Workers
Nature of the Work
A reputation for serving fine food is an asset to any restaurant or hotel, whether it
prides itself on "home cooking" or exotic foreign cuisine. Chefs, cooks, and other kitchen
workers are largely responsible for the reputation a restaurant acquires. Some restaurants
offer a varied menu featuring meals that are time consuming and difficult to prepare,
requiring a highly skilled cook or chef. Other restaurants emphasize fast service, offering
hamburgers and sandwiches that can be prepared in advance or in a few minutes by a fast-
food or short-order cook with only limited cooking skills.
Chefs and cooks are responsible for preparing meals that are tasty and attractively
presented. Chefs are the most highly skilled, trained, and experienced kitchen workers,
although the terms chef and cook are often used interchangeably. Many chefs have earned
fame for both themselves and the restaurants, hotels, and institutions where they work
because of their skill in artfully preparing the traditional favorites and in creating new dishes
and improving familiar ones.
Institutional chefs and cooks work in the kitchens of schools, industrial cafeterias,
hospitals, and other institutions. For each meal, they prepare a small selection of entrees,
vegetables, and desserts, but in large quantities. Restaurant chefs and cooks generally
prepare a wider selection of dishes for each meal, cooking most individual servings to
order. Whether in institutions or restaurants, chefs and cooks measure, mix, and cook
ingredients according to recipes. In the course of their work they use a variety of pots,
pans, cutlery, and equipment, including ovens, broilers, grills, slicers, grinders, and
blenders. They are often responsible for directing the work of other kitchen workers,
estimating food requirements, and ordering food supplies. Some chefs and cooks also help
plan meals and develop menus.
Bread and pastry bakers, called pastry chefs in some kitchens, produce baked goods
for restaurants, kitchens, produce baked goods for restaurants, institutions, and retail
bakery shops. Unlike bakers who work at large automated industrial bakeries, bread and
pastry bakers need only supply the customers who visit their establishment. They bake
smaller quantities of breads, rolls, pastries, pies, and cakes, doing most of the work by
hand. They measure and mix ingredients, shape and bake the dough, and apply fillings
and decorations.
Short-order cooks prepare foods to order in restaurants and coffee shops that
emphasize fast service. They grill and garnish hamburgers, prepare sandwiches, fry eggs,
and cook french fried potatoes, often working on several orders at the same time. Prior to
busy periods, they may slice meats and cheese or prepare coleslaw or potato salad.
During slow periods, they may clean the grill, food preparation surfaces, and counters.
Specialty fast-food cooks prepare a limited selection of menu items in fast-food
restaurants. They cook and package batches of food such as hamburgers and fried
chicken, which are prepared to order or kept warm until sold.
Other kitchen workers, under the direction of chefs and cooks, perform tasks
requiring less skill. They weigh and measure ingredients, fetch pots and pans, and stir and
strain soups and sauces. They clean, peel, and slice potatoes, vegetables, and fruits and
make salads. They also may cut and grind meats, poultry, and seafood in preparation for
cooking. Their responsibilities also include cleaning work areas, equipment and utensils,
and dishes and silverware.
The number and types of workers employed in kitchens depend partly on the size
and kind of restaurant. Fast-food outlets offer only a few items, which are prepared by fast-
food cooks. Smaller restaurants usually feature a limited number of short-order specialties
and ready-made desserts. Typically, one chef or cook prepares all of the food with the help
of a short-order cook and one or two other kitchen workers.
Large eating places usually have more varied menus and prepare, from start to
finish, more of the food they serve. Kitchen staffs often include several chefs or cooks,
sometimes called assistant or apprentice chefs or cooks, a bread and pastry baker, and
many less skilled kitchen workers. Each chef or cook usually has a special assignment and
often a special job title--vegetable, fry, or sauce cook, for example. Executive chefs or head
cooks coordinate the work of the kitchen staff and often direct certain kinds of food
preparation. They decide the size of servings, sometimes plan menus, and buy food
supplies.
Working Conditions
Many restaurant and institutional kitchens have modern equipment, convenient work
areas, and air-conditioning; but others, particularly in older and smaller eating places, are
frequently not as well equipped. Other variations in working conditions depend on the type
and quantity of food being prepared and the local laws governing food service operations.
Workers generally must withstand the pressure and strain of working in close quarters,
during busy periods, stand for hours at a time, lift heavy pots and kettles, and work near hot
ovens and ranges. Job hazards include falls, cuts, and burns, but injuries are seldom
serious.
Work hours in restaurants may include late evening, holiday, and weekend work,
while hours in cafeterias in factories, schools, or other institutions may be more regular.
Kitchen workers employed by public and private schools may work during the school year
only, usually for 9 or 10 months. Vacation resorts offer seasonal employment.
Employment
Chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers held 2.8 million jobs in 1990. Short-order
and fast-food cooks held 650,000 of the jobs, restaurant cooks 576,000, institutional cooks
406,000, bread and pastry bakers 128,000, and other kitchen workers 1,227,000. About
three-fifths of all chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers worked in restaurants and other
retail eating and drinking places. One-fifth worked in institutions such as schools,
universities, hospitals, and nursing homes. The remainder were employed by hotels,
government and factory cafeterias, private clubs, and many other organizations. More than
40 percent worked part time.
Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement
Most kitchen workers start as fast-food or short-order cooks, or in one of the other
less skilled kitchen positions that require little education or training and that allow them to
acquire their skills on the job. After acquiring some basic food handling, preparation, and
cooking skills, they may be able to advance to an assistant or fry cook, but many years of
training and experience are necessary to achieve the level of skill required of an executive
chef or cook in a fine restaurant. Even though a high school diploma is not required for
beginning jobs, it is recommended for those planning a career as a cook or chef. High
school or vocational school courses in business arithmetic and business administration are
particularly helpful.
An increasing number of chefs and cooks are obtaining their training through high
school or post-high school vocational programs and 2- or 4-year colleges. Chefs and cooks
may also be trained in apprenticeship programs offered by professional culinary institutes,
industry associations, and trade unions. An example is the 3-year apprenticeship program
administered by local chapters of the American Culinary Federation in cooperation with
local employers and junior colleges or vocational education institutions. In addition, some
large hotels and restaurants operate their own training programs for new employees.
Persons who have had courses in commercial food preparation may be able to start
in a cook or chef job without having to spend time in a lower skilled kitchen job, and they
may have an advantage when looking for jobs in better restaurants and hotels, where hiring
standards often are high. Some vocational programs in high schools offer this kind of
training. But usually these courses, which range from a few months to 2 years or more and
are open in some cases only to high school graduates, are given by trade schools,
vocational centers, colleges, professional associations, and trade unions. The Armed
Forces also are a good sources of training and experience.
Although curricula may vary, students usually spend most of their time learning to
prepare food through actual practice. They learn to bake, broil, and otherwise prepare food,
and to use and care for kitchen equipment. Training programs often include courses in
menu planning, determination of portion size and food cost control, purchasing food
supplies in quantity, selection and storage of food, and use of leftover food to minimize
waste. Students also learn hotel and restaurant sanitation and public health rules for
handling food. Training in supervisory and management skills sometimes is emphasized
in courses offered by private vocational schools, professional associations, and university
programs.
Many school districts, in cooperation with school food services divisions of State
departments of education, provide on-the-job training and sometimes summer workshops
for cafeteria kitchen workers who wish to become cooks. Some junior colleges, State
departments of education, and school associations also offer training programs. Cafeteria
kitchen employees who have participated in these training programs often are selected for
jobs as cooks.
Certification provides valuable formal recognition of the skills of a chef or cook. The
American Culinary Federation certifies chefs and cooks at the levels of cook, chef, pastry
chef, executive chef, and master chef. Certification standards are based primarily on
experience and formal training.
The ability to work as part of a team, a keen sense of taste and smell, and personal
cleanliness are important qualifications for chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers. Most
States require health certificates indicating that these workers are free from contagious
diseases.
Advancement opportunities for chefs and cooks are better than for most other food
and beverage preparation and service occupations. Many acquire higher paying positions
and new cooking skills by moving from one job to another. Others gradually advance to
executive chef positions or supervisory or management positions, particularly in hotels,
clubs, or larger, more elegant restaurants. Some eventually go into business as caterers
or restaurant owners; others may become instructors in vocational programs in high
schools, junior and community colleges, and other academic institutions.
Job Outlook
Job openings for chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers are expected to be plentiful
through the year 2000. Growth in demand for these workers will create many job openings.
There is substantial turnover in many of these jobs because their limited formal education
and training requirements allow easy entry, and the large number of part-time positions are
attractive to persons seeking a short-term source of income rather than a career. Many of
the workers who leave these jobs transfer to other occupations, while others stop working
to assume household responsibilities or to attend school full time.
Workers under the age of 25 have traditionally filled a significant proportion of these
jobs. The pool of young workers is expected to shrink through the year 2000, however,
forcing many employers to offer higher wages, better fringe benefits, and more training to
attract and retain workers.
Employment of chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers is expected to increase
faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2000. Since a significant
proportion of food and beverage sales by eating and drinking establishments is associated
with the over-all level of economic activity--workers' lunches and entertainment of clients,
for example--sales and employment will increase the growth of the economy. Other factors
contributing to employment growth will be population growth, rising family and personal
incomes, and more leisure time that will allow people to dine out and take vacations more
often. Also, as more women join the work force, families increasingly may find dining out
a welcome convenience.
Employment in restaurants is expected to grow rapidly. Increasing demand for
restaurants that offer table service and varied menus, particularly more expensive
restaurants that offer more exotic foods, will require highly skilled cooks and chefs. the
popularity of fresh baked breads and pastries in fine dining establishments should incur
continued increase in employment of bakers. However, employment of short-order and
specialty fast-food coos is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all
occupations because most work in fast-food restaurants, which are expected to have slower
growth than in the past.
Employment of institutional chefs and cooks will increase about as fast as average
because their employment is concentrated in the educational sector. However, the number
of elderly people is expected to result in a rapid increase in kitchen jobs associated with
nursing homes, residential care facilities, and other health care institutions.
Earnings
According to a survey conducted by the National Restaurant Association, median
hourly earnings of chefs were $10.20 in 1990, and generally ranged between $9.40 and
$10.50. However, many executive chefs earned over $40,000 annually. Cooks had
median hourly earnings of $5.95, with most earnings between $5.20 and $7.00. Assistant
cooks had median hourly earnings of $5.20, with most earnings between $4.70 and $5.75.
According to the same survey, short-order cooks had median hourly earnings of
$4.80 in 1990; most earned between $4.80 and $5.75. Median hourly earnings of bread
and pastry bakers were $6.00; most earned within the range of $5.75 to $6.50. Salad
preparation workers generally earned less, with median hourly earnings of $4.95; most
earned between $4.50 and $5.25. Food preparation workers in fast-food restaurants had
median hourly earnings of $4.05, with most earning between $3.65 and $4.95.
Wages of chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers vary depending on the part of the
country and, especially, the type of establishment in which they work. Wages generally are
highest in elegant restaurants and hotels. Some employers provide uniforms and free
meals, but Federal law permits employers to deduct from wages the cost, or fair value, of
any meals or lodging provided, and some employers exercise this right.
In some large hotels and restaurants, kitchen workers belong to unions. The
principal unions are the Hotel employees and Restaurant Employees International Union
and the Service Employees International Union, both AFL-CIO affiliates.
Related Occupations
Chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers handle and prepare food. Workers who
perform similar tasks include butchers and meatcutters, cannery workers, and industrial
bakers.
Sources of Additional Information
Information about job opportunities may be obtained from local employers and local
offices of the State employment service.
Career information about chefs, cooks, and other kitchen workers, as well as a
directory of 2- and 4-year colleges that offer courses or programs that prepare persons for
food service careers, is available from:
The Educational Foundation of the National Restaurant Association, 20 North
Wacker Dr., Suite 2620, Chicago, IL 60606.
For information on the American Culinary Federation's apprenticeship and
certification programs for cooks, write to:
American Culinary Federation, P.O. Box 3466, St. Augustine, FL 32084.
For information on hospitality careers and a directory of colleges and other schools
offering programs and courses in hospitality education, write to:
Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Education, 311 First St. NW.,
Washington, D.C. 20001.
For general career information and a directory of accredited private trade and
technical schools offering programs in the culinary arts, write to:
National Association of Trade and Technical Schools, P.O. Box 10429,
Department BL, Rockville, MD 20850.
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